Roman roads
- via romana / viae ? (paved roads) -
- via rustica / viae rusticae (secondary gravel roads)
- via terrena / viae terrenae (dirt roads)
major: Via Aemilia, 187 BC
Ariminum (Umbria), Bononia (Aemilia), Placentia (Transpadana)
major: Via Appia, 312 BC
Roma (Latium), Capua (Campania), Tarentum, Brundisium (Apulia)
Via Postumia, 148 BC
Genua (Liguria), Placentia (Transpadana), Cremona (Transpadana), Placentia (Transpadana), Verona (Venetia), Aquileia (Histria)
Via Aemilia Scaura, 109 BC
Pisae (Etruria), Genua (Liguria), Placentia (Transpadana)
Via Annia
Patavium (Venetia), Aquileia (Histria)
Via Popilia
Ariminum (Umbria), Ravenna (Aemilia), Patavium (Venetia)
via flaminia, 220, umbria ?
• Via Asinaria • Via Aurelia • Via Collatina • Via Cornelia • Via Flaminia (and Via Lata) • Via Labicana • Via Latina • Via Nomentana • Via Ostiensis • Via Portuensis • Via Praenestina • Via Tecta (Via Recta) • Via Tiburtina • Via Triumphalis •
Latium - Roma
Campania felix - Capua
Apulia - Luceria, Beneventum, Barium
Calabria - Tarentum, Brundisium
Lucania - Paestum, Potentia, Sybaris?
Bruttium - Rhegium, Croton
Samnium - Corfinium, Bovianum
Sabinium et Picenum - Ancona
Umbria et Ager Gallicus - Ariminum, Sena Gallicaculture
Etruria - Arretium, Tarquinii
Gallia Cisalpina Aemilia - Bononia
Gallia Cisalpina Liguria - Genua
Gallia Cisalpina Venetia - Patavium
Gallia Cisalpina Histria - Aquileia
Gallia Cisalpina Insubria - Mediolanum
----------------------------
Via Ostiensis - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Ostiensis
requires Ostia Antica - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostia_Antica
Via Portuensis - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Portuensis
requires Portus - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portus
Ludi Romani
Theatrum Theatrum Pompeium (Theatre of Pompey)
Circus Circus Maximus
Amphitheatrum Amphitheatrum Flavium, "Colosseum", "Coliseum" 72-80 AD
Ludus Magnus (The Great Gladiatorial Training School)
There were four schools (ludi) in Rome: ludus magnus (the most important), ludus dacus, ludus gallicus, and ludus matutinus (school for gladiators dealing with animals).
? scholae bestiarum, bestiariorum (beast-fighting school)
ad ludum gladiatorium -> ludus gladiatorius ?
urbes majores: a, b
urbes minores: x, y, z
Civitas - est civium condicio vel universi cives.
Caput - est prima urbs nationis
Oppidum - est civitas urbe minor, vico maior. (pl. oppida) = town
Municipium
Vicus (pl. vici)
others Roma
Forum
Forum Venalium
Mercatus (Market) Mercatus Trajani (Trajan's Market)
Forum Civilium
Forum Magnum Forum Romanum
Basilica Basilica Aemilia
Curia (Court) Curia Hostilia (Hostilian Court), Curia Julia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_architecture
ager publicus
Villa
Latifundia
Latin being an inflected language, names in a Latin context may have different word-endings to those shown here, which are given in the nominative case. For instance Roma (Rome) may appear as Romae meaning "at Rome" (locative), "of Rome" (genitive) or "for Rome" (dative), as Romam meaning "to Rome" (accusative), or indeed as Romā with a long a, probably not indicated in the orthography, meaning "from Rome" (ablative). Similarly names ending in -um or -us may occur with -i or -o, and names ending in -us may occur with -um. The words urbs and civitas may occur as urbis, urbi, or urbe, and civitatis, civitati or civitate.
Thursday, September 13, 2007
Tuesday, September 11, 2007
units
Polybius: 203-120 BC
Legions: 2
Tribunes per legion: 6
10 turmae of 30 horsemen
Triarii: 600 - maniple of 60 men
Principes: 1200 - maniple of 2 centuries, 120 men
Hastati: 1200 - maniple of 2 centuries, 120 men
4200
Equites: 300 horsemen
Socii Italici ?
Socii Latini ?
Ala Latina = latin allied legion
Allied equites extraordinarii (infantry): 200-300 horsemen
Allied equites (cavalry): 400-600 horsemen
Allied pedites extraordinarii (infantry): 600 men
Allied pedites (infantry): 2400 men
Late republic:
legionarii / cohortes legionariae
alarii / cohortes alariae (ex.: Alarii Transpadani)
Legion = Aquila
Equites Romani
Evocati
Vexillarii: manipuli standard bearer
Antesignani: those who fought in the first ranks of the legion before the standards of the legion and cohorts were called
LacusCurtius: The Roman Camp (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)
Polybius on the Roman Military System / Polybius Rome at the End of the Punic Wars
Roman legion
Auxiliaries (Roman military)
The Republican Roman Army
Roman units:
They can be recruited in the central Italian provinces Latium, Umbria, Etruria, Apulia, Liguria and Campania. These are the heartlands of the Res Publica, filled with our colonies founded during the epic struggles of the past centuries.
Latium, Umbria, Etruria, Apulia, Liguria and Campania.
Pedites Extraordinarii (Elite Heavy Infantry of the Italic Allies)
Hastati Samnitici (Allied Samnite Medium Spearmen)
Samnitici Milites (Samnite Heavy Infantry)
Eqvites Romani (Roman Citizen Cavalry)
Eqvites Extraordinarii (Elite Heavy Cavalry of the Italic Allies)
The consuls can enroll the troops of the socii, the Italic allies of the Romani, in all regions of Italia.
In a consular army the best fifth of the socii infantry and a third of their cavalry are selected to serve as extraordinarii, a special unit under the direct control of the consul, available for decisive manoeuvres. On the march they are the advance or rear guard, defending the army against possible attacks.
Usually their infantry equalled that of the Romans while their cavalry was three times as numerous. In a standard consular two legion army the remainder of their troops, without the extraordinarii, were divided into two equal sized units. Called ala sinistra and ala dextera (left and right wing) for being placed on the flanks of the similar sized legions. After the social war their distinctive units finally disappeared when most people of Italia received full citizenship and were now directly recruited into the legions.
Historically, quite a few regions of the Italian peninsula were well suited for horse breeding and their aristocracy provided the bulk of the cavalry for the roman armies. Especially the horsemen from Campania, that came under Roman rule in the 4th century BC were famous for their qualities. The campanian's large horses and their well trained riders, coming from an equestrian nobility with its own strong traditions, made them the one of the most respected cavalry in Italy. The structure of the roman society and the position of the ordo equester as part of the leading classes made it impossible to supply the armies of the Res Publica with a sufficient number of citizen cavalry, so the socii, the Italic allies of the Romani, and their horsemen had to fill the gap. In roman service every eques sociorum had two horses and was accompanied by a groom. During the 2nd century BC non Italic auxiliary cavalry increasingly replaced the socii as the dominant part of most armies mounted contingent.
Pedites Extraordinarii (Elite Heavy Infantry of the Italic Allies)
Especially the Samnites are famous for their heavy infantry and many of them are picked to serve as pedites extraordinarii.
They fight in a similar manner than the ordinary roman legionary with javelins and swords but besides their native traditions the soldier's equipment is more influenced by greek fashions. with a bronze muscle cuirass, a helmet, a hoplon style shield, several light javelins and a kopis sword.
Hastati Samnitici (Allied Samnite Medium Spearmen)
These Samnite Spearmen are dependable medium infantry carrying light javelins that they throw before an ensuing melee with their spears. They are well armored with bronze breastplates and helms and have a single greave on their left leg (the leg most vulnerable in hand to hand combat). Although not a shock unit as their swordsmen counterpart, they are well trained, fast and reliable spearmen. They are not capable of standing up to professional heavy infantry, but their spears, bronze breastplates and large shields make them suited to fighting against quite a few infantry and light and medium cavalry types.
Historically the Samnites were one of the most rebellious Italian peoples and joined up with Rome's enemies on a regular basis. They fought with Pyrrus in the 290's, rose up in rebellion during the first Punic War, and fought alongside Hannibal in the second Punic War. They rose a final time during the Italian Social Wars, and were incorporated into the Roman state by receiving Roman citizenship. They still fought with their distinctive bronze belts until the middle empire, and even then legions from Samnium still had the national symbol of their former country on their shields.
Samnitici Milites (Samnite Heavy Infantry)
Their infantry carries lighter javelins (and consequently more of them) and is armed with the Greek Kopis, a slashing sword that is very powerful and can be used against armor due to its shape (and is much like the Iberian Falcata). These Samnites are well armored with bronze breastplates, helms, greaves, and a round argive shield. Although not as disciplined as Roman infantry, they are trained to a high degree and make up for their indiscipline with their fighting style and fierce hatred of their Roman foe. Some Samnite tribes have broken with their brothers in Samnium and now work for the Romans. Others long for the day when an enemy of Rome will come to Italy so that they can flock to the fight against their hated foes.
Historically the Samnites were one of the most rebellious Italian peoples and joined up with Rome's enemies on a regular basis. They fought with Pyrrus in the 290's, rose up in rebellion during the first Punic War, and fought alongside Hannibal in the second Punic War. They rose a final time during the Italian Social Wars, and were incorporated into the Roman state by receiving Roman citizenship. They still fought with their distinctive bronze belts until the middle empire, and even then legions from Samnium still had the national symbol of their former country on their shields.
Eqvites Romani (Camillan Roman Citizen Cavalry)
Historically, the equites were the members of the ordo equester and the sons of the families of the ordo senatorius, the two classes of the roman nobility, the wealthiest and most influential men.
This proud horsemen were the future leading men of Roma. Their small numbers and the formidable opposition of other nations more professional cavalry often limited their effect on the battlefield, so that they were rarely used for other tasks than securing the flanks of the heavy infantry.
Eqvites Extraordinarii (Elite Heavy Cavalry of the Italic Allies)
Equites Extraordinarii are the finest horsemen Italia can field, mostly drawn from the aristocracy of the horse breeding regions. Especially campanian cavalry proved to be a valuable addition for every roman army and many of them were picked as Equites Extraordinarii. Armed with Greek xyston lances and kopis slashing swords, they normally fight as shock cavalry, spared in battle for the decisive attack. To show their position in society most riders wear elaborately decorated armour, mainly bronze muscle cuirasses, attic helmets and greaves.
Legions: 2
Tribunes per legion: 6
10 turmae of 30 horsemen
Triarii: 600 - maniple of 60 men
Principes: 1200 - maniple of 2 centuries, 120 men
Hastati: 1200 - maniple of 2 centuries, 120 men
4200
Equites: 300 horsemen
Socii Italici ?
Socii Latini ?
Ala Latina = latin allied legion
Allied equites extraordinarii (infantry): 200-300 horsemen
Allied equites (cavalry): 400-600 horsemen
Allied pedites extraordinarii (infantry): 600 men
Allied pedites (infantry): 2400 men
Late republic:
legionarii / cohortes legionariae
alarii / cohortes alariae (ex.: Alarii Transpadani)
Legion = Aquila
Equites Romani
Evocati
Vexillarii: manipuli standard bearer
Antesignani: those who fought in the first ranks of the legion before the standards of the legion and cohorts were called
LacusCurtius: The Roman Camp (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)
Polybius on the Roman Military System / Polybius Rome at the End of the Punic Wars
Roman legion
Auxiliaries (Roman military)
The Republican Roman Army
Roman units:
They can be recruited in the central Italian provinces Latium, Umbria, Etruria, Apulia, Liguria and Campania. These are the heartlands of the Res Publica, filled with our colonies founded during the epic struggles of the past centuries.
Latium, Umbria, Etruria, Apulia, Liguria and Campania.
Pedites Extraordinarii (Elite Heavy Infantry of the Italic Allies)
Hastati Samnitici (Allied Samnite Medium Spearmen)
Samnitici Milites (Samnite Heavy Infantry)
Eqvites Romani (Roman Citizen Cavalry)
Eqvites Extraordinarii (Elite Heavy Cavalry of the Italic Allies)
The consuls can enroll the troops of the socii, the Italic allies of the Romani, in all regions of Italia.
In a consular army the best fifth of the socii infantry and a third of their cavalry are selected to serve as extraordinarii, a special unit under the direct control of the consul, available for decisive manoeuvres. On the march they are the advance or rear guard, defending the army against possible attacks.
Usually their infantry equalled that of the Romans while their cavalry was three times as numerous. In a standard consular two legion army the remainder of their troops, without the extraordinarii, were divided into two equal sized units. Called ala sinistra and ala dextera (left and right wing) for being placed on the flanks of the similar sized legions. After the social war their distinctive units finally disappeared when most people of Italia received full citizenship and were now directly recruited into the legions.
Historically, quite a few regions of the Italian peninsula were well suited for horse breeding and their aristocracy provided the bulk of the cavalry for the roman armies. Especially the horsemen from Campania, that came under Roman rule in the 4th century BC were famous for their qualities. The campanian's large horses and their well trained riders, coming from an equestrian nobility with its own strong traditions, made them the one of the most respected cavalry in Italy. The structure of the roman society and the position of the ordo equester as part of the leading classes made it impossible to supply the armies of the Res Publica with a sufficient number of citizen cavalry, so the socii, the Italic allies of the Romani, and their horsemen had to fill the gap. In roman service every eques sociorum had two horses and was accompanied by a groom. During the 2nd century BC non Italic auxiliary cavalry increasingly replaced the socii as the dominant part of most armies mounted contingent.
Pedites Extraordinarii (Elite Heavy Infantry of the Italic Allies)
Especially the Samnites are famous for their heavy infantry and many of them are picked to serve as pedites extraordinarii.
They fight in a similar manner than the ordinary roman legionary with javelins and swords but besides their native traditions the soldier's equipment is more influenced by greek fashions. with a bronze muscle cuirass, a helmet, a hoplon style shield, several light javelins and a kopis sword.
Hastati Samnitici (Allied Samnite Medium Spearmen)
These Samnite Spearmen are dependable medium infantry carrying light javelins that they throw before an ensuing melee with their spears. They are well armored with bronze breastplates and helms and have a single greave on their left leg (the leg most vulnerable in hand to hand combat). Although not a shock unit as their swordsmen counterpart, they are well trained, fast and reliable spearmen. They are not capable of standing up to professional heavy infantry, but their spears, bronze breastplates and large shields make them suited to fighting against quite a few infantry and light and medium cavalry types.
Historically the Samnites were one of the most rebellious Italian peoples and joined up with Rome's enemies on a regular basis. They fought with Pyrrus in the 290's, rose up in rebellion during the first Punic War, and fought alongside Hannibal in the second Punic War. They rose a final time during the Italian Social Wars, and were incorporated into the Roman state by receiving Roman citizenship. They still fought with their distinctive bronze belts until the middle empire, and even then legions from Samnium still had the national symbol of their former country on their shields.
Samnitici Milites (Samnite Heavy Infantry)
Their infantry carries lighter javelins (and consequently more of them) and is armed with the Greek Kopis, a slashing sword that is very powerful and can be used against armor due to its shape (and is much like the Iberian Falcata). These Samnites are well armored with bronze breastplates, helms, greaves, and a round argive shield. Although not as disciplined as Roman infantry, they are trained to a high degree and make up for their indiscipline with their fighting style and fierce hatred of their Roman foe. Some Samnite tribes have broken with their brothers in Samnium and now work for the Romans. Others long for the day when an enemy of Rome will come to Italy so that they can flock to the fight against their hated foes.
Historically the Samnites were one of the most rebellious Italian peoples and joined up with Rome's enemies on a regular basis. They fought with Pyrrus in the 290's, rose up in rebellion during the first Punic War, and fought alongside Hannibal in the second Punic War. They rose a final time during the Italian Social Wars, and were incorporated into the Roman state by receiving Roman citizenship. They still fought with their distinctive bronze belts until the middle empire, and even then legions from Samnium still had the national symbol of their former country on their shields.
Eqvites Romani (Camillan Roman Citizen Cavalry)
Historically, the equites were the members of the ordo equester and the sons of the families of the ordo senatorius, the two classes of the roman nobility, the wealthiest and most influential men.
This proud horsemen were the future leading men of Roma. Their small numbers and the formidable opposition of other nations more professional cavalry often limited their effect on the battlefield, so that they were rarely used for other tasks than securing the flanks of the heavy infantry.
Eqvites Extraordinarii (Elite Heavy Cavalry of the Italic Allies)
Equites Extraordinarii are the finest horsemen Italia can field, mostly drawn from the aristocracy of the horse breeding regions. Especially campanian cavalry proved to be a valuable addition for every roman army and many of them were picked as Equites Extraordinarii. Armed with Greek xyston lances and kopis slashing swords, they normally fight as shock cavalry, spared in battle for the decisive attack. To show their position in society most riders wear elaborately decorated armour, mainly bronze muscle cuirasses, attic helmets and greaves.
Monday, September 10, 2007
Roman citizenship
Forum Romanum: Outlines of Roman History, Chapter 13
Regiones Italiae Romanae
praefectura
city status - citizenship class - citizenship rights
Provincia - Provinciales - jus gentium
Civitas Foederata - Socii - ?
Municipium?, colonia Latina - Latini - Latinitas (jus Latii)
colonia civium Romanorum, - Cives Romani - Civitas (jus civile)
Roman_colonies
outlying Roman provinces
I - dediticii
II - civitates foederate
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA/Law/home.html
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Provincia.html
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9082770/civitas
municipium plural municipia
"In antiquity, A community incorporated into the Roman state after the dissolution of the Latin League. Initially, inhabitants of such municipalities were considered Roman citizens without voting rights. As the Italian provinces were incorporated into the Roman state, residents of the municipia who moved to Rome were registered in the tribes and accorded full political rights. Voting rights were granted to some cities, and they maintained a certain amount of autonomy, for they were permitted to retain their own governments as well as their local magistrates, who had limited judicial and financial powers. However, the municipia remained under the jurisdiction of Rome in matters of foreign policy, and they supplied Rome with troops and were not permitted to mint money. After the Social War (90–89 BC) all Latin and Italian communities became municipia of Roman citizens.
The municipium system prevailed largely in Latin-speaking provinces but seldom occurred in the north or in the Greek-speaking eastern provinces. The chief sources of income for the municipia were donations from wealthy municipes (citizens of municipia), export and import taxes, and revenue from city lands. In the provincial municipia the local aristocracy constituted a council (see decurio) that supervised local politics and finances, thus subordinating the powers of the magistrates. The municipia system allowed and encouraged the Romanization of western Europe. When Roman citizenship was granted to most inhabitants of the empire in AD 212, the system became obsolete."
"municipium." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10 Sept. 2007
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9054286>.
"The enjoyment of the imperial Roman peace entailed the acceptance of the status of municipium — a respectable but subordinate rank within the Roman state. The municipia were supported fiscally by taxes on trade, contributions from members of the community, and income from lands owned by each municipium."
"city." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10 Sept. 2007
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-61359>.
decurio plural decuriones
"In ancient Rome, the head of a group of 10. [The civil usage of the decurio title] was applied to a member of the local council or senate of a colonia (a community established by Roman citizens and having full citizenship rights) or a municipium (a corporation and community established by non-Romans but granted certain rights of citizenship). Qualifications were numerous, and the position was regarded as an honour. The decuriones had wide powers in local administration, finance, and judiciary proceedings."
"decurio." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10 Sept. 2007
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9029717>.
Latin Colonia, plural Coloniae, in Roman antiquity, a Roman settlement in conquered territory. The earliest colonies were coast-guard communities, each containing about 300 Roman citizens and their families. By 200 BC a system of such Roman maritime colonies maintained guard over the coasts throughout Italy. The Romans preferred this form of coastal defense to the use of a fleet. The colonists kept their Roman citizenship, with all the rights thereof.
The larger Latin colonies were established for defensive purposes outside Roman territory. In 218 BC, for example, about 6,000 colonists, Latin as well as Roman, were settled in Placentia and Cremona to guard the region of the Po River following the conquest of northern Italy. At first, the Romans who moved to such colonies exchanged their Roman citizenship for generous land grants, but after 177 BC Latin colonists were considered Roman citizens. The colonists could exercise full political rights in Rome and elect their own magistrates, who had limited judicial and financial power.
By the late 2nd century BC, colonies were established not only for defensive purposes but for offering work to landless freedmen and veterans. Julius Caesar and Augustus regularized the practice of founding colonies for veterans and proletarians in conquered territories outside Rome. The presence of colonists helped to Romanize the local inhabitants, some of whom assimilated and acquired Roman citizenship. This policy was maintained until the 2nd century AD. Thereafter, colonia became simply the highest rank that a community could attain. Colonies were often named for their founders and later benefactors, which often included the emperors.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9024829/colony
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26656/ancient-Rome
More Resources:
Vicus (Wikipedia)
Civitas (Wikipedia); Foederati (Wikipedia)
Municipium (Wikipedia)
Colonia (Wikipedia)
post Latin War in (340-338 BC) - Italy:
I) Coloniae civium Romanorum, whose members had all the rights of citizenship;
II) municipia, which received partial citizenship;
III) foederatae civitates (including the so-called Latin colonies), which remained entirely separate from Rome, and stood in relations with her which were separately arranged by her for each state by treaty (foedus).
post Social War (91 B.C) - Italy:
- municipia
post Social War (91 B.C) - provinces:
- coloniae
- municipia juris Romani
- municipia juris Latini
principate:
- municipia
CITY MANAGEMENT GUIDE TO ROME:TOTAL WAR by MarekBrutus
Taxes in the Roman Empire
In the early days of the Roman Republic, public taxes consisted of modest assessments on owned wealth and property. These modest taxes were levied against land, homes and other real estate, slaves, animals, personal items and monetary wealth.
By 167 B.C. the Republic had enriched itself greatly through a series of conquests. Gains such as the silver and gold mines in Spain created an excellent source of revenue for the state, and a much larger tax base through its provincial residents. By this time, Rome no longer needed to levy a tax against its citizens in Italy and looked only to the provinces for collections.
Tax farmers (Publicani) were used to collect these taxes from the provincials. Rome, in eliminating its own burden for this process, would put the collection of taxes up for auction every few years. The Publicani would bid for the right to collect in particular regions, and pay the state in advance of this collection. These payments were, in effect, loans to the state and Rome was required to pay interest back to the Publicani. As an offset, the Publicani had the individual responsibility of converting properties and goods collected into coinage, alleviating this hardship from the treasury. In the end, the collectors would keep anything in excess of what they bid plus the interest due from the treasury; with the risk being that they might not collect as much as they originally bid.
Tax farming proved to be an incredibly profitable enterprise and served to increase the treasury, as well as line the pockets of the Publicani. However, the process was ripe with corruption and scheming.
In the late 1st century BC, and after considerably more Roman expansion, Augustus essentially put an end to tax farming. Complaints from provincials for excessive assessments and large, un-payable debts ushered in the final days of this lucrative business. Tax farming was replaced by direct taxation early in the Empire and each province was required to pay a wealth tax of about 1% and a flat poll tax on each adult. This new procedure, of course, required regular census taking to evaluate the taxable number of people and their income/wealth status. Taxation in this environment switched mainly from one of owned property and wealth to that of an income tax. As a result, the taxable yield varied greatly based on economic conditions, but theoretically, the process was fairer and less open to corruption.
In contrast, the Publicani had to focus their efforts on collecting revenues where it was most easily available due to limited time and capacity. Their efforts were mainly directed at the cash wealthy because converting properties into cash could be a difficult process. Additionally, growth of a provincial tax base went straight to the coffers of the Publicani. They had the luxury of bidding against previous tax collections and the Treasury's knowledge of increased wealth would take several collections before auction prices were raised. In this way, the Publicani increased their own wealth, but eventually the state would reap the benefit of increased collections down the line.
The imperial system of flat levies instituted by Augustus shifted the system into being far less progressive, however. Growth in the provincial taxable basis under the Publicani led to higher collections in time, while under Augustus, fixed payments reduced this potential. Tax paying citizens were aware of the exact amounts they needed to pay and any excess income remained with the communities. While there could obviously be reassessments that would adjust the taxable base it was a slow process that left a lot of room for the earning of untaxed incomes. While seemingly less effective to the state than that of the Publicani system, the new practice allowed for considerable economic growth and expansion.
Roman Taxes
Publicani:
+ corruption
salinae (salt-works) - Salina [maritimae areae salinarum]
Although the ancients were well acquainted with rock-salt, and found no small quantity on certain shores where it was congealed by the heat of the sun without human labour, they obtained by far the greatest quantity by the management of works constructed on the sea-shore, where it was naturally adapted for the purpose by being so low and flat as to be easily overflowed by the sea.
Throughout the Roman empire the salt-works were commonly public property, and were let by the government to the highest bidder. The first salt-works are said to have been established by Ancus Marcius at Ostia. The publicani who farmed these works appear to have sold the salt, one of the most necessary of all commodities, at a very high price. The salt-works in Italy and in the provinces were very numerous; in conquered countries however they were sometimes left in the possession of their former owners (persons or towns) who had to pay to Rome only a fixed rent, but most of them were farmed by the publicani.
LacusCurtius • Salinae (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)
Vectigalia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Sacra
Regiones Italiae Romanae
praefectura
city status - citizenship class - citizenship rights
Provincia - Provinciales - jus gentium
Civitas Foederata - Socii - ?
Municipium?, colonia Latina - Latini - Latinitas (jus Latii)
colonia civium Romanorum, - Cives Romani - Civitas (jus civile)
Roman_colonies
outlying Roman provinces
I - dediticii
II - civitates foederate
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA/Law/home.html
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Provincia.html
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9082770/civitas
municipium plural municipia
"In antiquity, A community incorporated into the Roman state after the dissolution of the Latin League. Initially, inhabitants of such municipalities were considered Roman citizens without voting rights. As the Italian provinces were incorporated into the Roman state, residents of the municipia who moved to Rome were registered in the tribes and accorded full political rights. Voting rights were granted to some cities, and they maintained a certain amount of autonomy, for they were permitted to retain their own governments as well as their local magistrates, who had limited judicial and financial powers. However, the municipia remained under the jurisdiction of Rome in matters of foreign policy, and they supplied Rome with troops and were not permitted to mint money. After the Social War (90–89 BC) all Latin and Italian communities became municipia of Roman citizens.
The municipium system prevailed largely in Latin-speaking provinces but seldom occurred in the north or in the Greek-speaking eastern provinces. The chief sources of income for the municipia were donations from wealthy municipes (citizens of municipia), export and import taxes, and revenue from city lands. In the provincial municipia the local aristocracy constituted a council (see decurio) that supervised local politics and finances, thus subordinating the powers of the magistrates. The municipia system allowed and encouraged the Romanization of western Europe. When Roman citizenship was granted to most inhabitants of the empire in AD 212, the system became obsolete."
"municipium." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10 Sept. 2007
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9054286>.
"The enjoyment of the imperial Roman peace entailed the acceptance of the status of municipium — a respectable but subordinate rank within the Roman state. The municipia were supported fiscally by taxes on trade, contributions from members of the community, and income from lands owned by each municipium."
"city." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10 Sept. 2007
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-61359>.
decurio plural decuriones
"In ancient Rome, the head of a group of 10. [The civil usage of the decurio title] was applied to a member of the local council or senate of a colonia (a community established by Roman citizens and having full citizenship rights) or a municipium (a corporation and community established by non-Romans but granted certain rights of citizenship). Qualifications were numerous, and the position was regarded as an honour. The decuriones had wide powers in local administration, finance, and judiciary proceedings."
"decurio." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10 Sept. 2007
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9029717>.
Latin Colonia, plural Coloniae, in Roman antiquity, a Roman settlement in conquered territory. The earliest colonies were coast-guard communities, each containing about 300 Roman citizens and their families. By 200 BC a system of such Roman maritime colonies maintained guard over the coasts throughout Italy. The Romans preferred this form of coastal defense to the use of a fleet. The colonists kept their Roman citizenship, with all the rights thereof.
The larger Latin colonies were established for defensive purposes outside Roman territory. In 218 BC, for example, about 6,000 colonists, Latin as well as Roman, were settled in Placentia and Cremona to guard the region of the Po River following the conquest of northern Italy. At first, the Romans who moved to such colonies exchanged their Roman citizenship for generous land grants, but after 177 BC Latin colonists were considered Roman citizens. The colonists could exercise full political rights in Rome and elect their own magistrates, who had limited judicial and financial power.
By the late 2nd century BC, colonies were established not only for defensive purposes but for offering work to landless freedmen and veterans. Julius Caesar and Augustus regularized the practice of founding colonies for veterans and proletarians in conquered territories outside Rome. The presence of colonists helped to Romanize the local inhabitants, some of whom assimilated and acquired Roman citizenship. This policy was maintained until the 2nd century AD. Thereafter, colonia became simply the highest rank that a community could attain. Colonies were often named for their founders and later benefactors, which often included the emperors.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9024829/colony
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26656/ancient-Rome
More Resources:
Vicus (Wikipedia)
Civitas (Wikipedia); Foederati (Wikipedia)
Municipium (Wikipedia)
Colonia (Wikipedia)
post Latin War in (340-338 BC) - Italy:
I) Coloniae civium Romanorum, whose members had all the rights of citizenship;
II) municipia, which received partial citizenship;
III) foederatae civitates (including the so-called Latin colonies), which remained entirely separate from Rome, and stood in relations with her which were separately arranged by her for each state by treaty (foedus).
post Social War (91 B.C) - Italy:
- municipia
post Social War (91 B.C) - provinces:
- coloniae
- municipia juris Romani
- municipia juris Latini
principate:
- municipia
CITY MANAGEMENT GUIDE TO ROME:TOTAL WAR by MarekBrutus
Taxes in the Roman Empire
In the early days of the Roman Republic, public taxes consisted of modest assessments on owned wealth and property. These modest taxes were levied against land, homes and other real estate, slaves, animals, personal items and monetary wealth.
By 167 B.C. the Republic had enriched itself greatly through a series of conquests. Gains such as the silver and gold mines in Spain created an excellent source of revenue for the state, and a much larger tax base through its provincial residents. By this time, Rome no longer needed to levy a tax against its citizens in Italy and looked only to the provinces for collections.
Tax farmers (Publicani) were used to collect these taxes from the provincials. Rome, in eliminating its own burden for this process, would put the collection of taxes up for auction every few years. The Publicani would bid for the right to collect in particular regions, and pay the state in advance of this collection. These payments were, in effect, loans to the state and Rome was required to pay interest back to the Publicani. As an offset, the Publicani had the individual responsibility of converting properties and goods collected into coinage, alleviating this hardship from the treasury. In the end, the collectors would keep anything in excess of what they bid plus the interest due from the treasury; with the risk being that they might not collect as much as they originally bid.
Tax farming proved to be an incredibly profitable enterprise and served to increase the treasury, as well as line the pockets of the Publicani. However, the process was ripe with corruption and scheming.
In the late 1st century BC, and after considerably more Roman expansion, Augustus essentially put an end to tax farming. Complaints from provincials for excessive assessments and large, un-payable debts ushered in the final days of this lucrative business. Tax farming was replaced by direct taxation early in the Empire and each province was required to pay a wealth tax of about 1% and a flat poll tax on each adult. This new procedure, of course, required regular census taking to evaluate the taxable number of people and their income/wealth status. Taxation in this environment switched mainly from one of owned property and wealth to that of an income tax. As a result, the taxable yield varied greatly based on economic conditions, but theoretically, the process was fairer and less open to corruption.
In contrast, the Publicani had to focus their efforts on collecting revenues where it was most easily available due to limited time and capacity. Their efforts were mainly directed at the cash wealthy because converting properties into cash could be a difficult process. Additionally, growth of a provincial tax base went straight to the coffers of the Publicani. They had the luxury of bidding against previous tax collections and the Treasury's knowledge of increased wealth would take several collections before auction prices were raised. In this way, the Publicani increased their own wealth, but eventually the state would reap the benefit of increased collections down the line.
The imperial system of flat levies instituted by Augustus shifted the system into being far less progressive, however. Growth in the provincial taxable basis under the Publicani led to higher collections in time, while under Augustus, fixed payments reduced this potential. Tax paying citizens were aware of the exact amounts they needed to pay and any excess income remained with the communities. While there could obviously be reassessments that would adjust the taxable base it was a slow process that left a lot of room for the earning of untaxed incomes. While seemingly less effective to the state than that of the Publicani system, the new practice allowed for considerable economic growth and expansion.
Roman Taxes
Publicani:
+ corruption
salinae (salt-works) - Salina [maritimae areae salinarum]
Although the ancients were well acquainted with rock-salt, and found no small quantity on certain shores where it was congealed by the heat of the sun without human labour, they obtained by far the greatest quantity by the management of works constructed on the sea-shore, where it was naturally adapted for the purpose by being so low and flat as to be easily overflowed by the sea.
Throughout the Roman empire the salt-works were commonly public property, and were let by the government to the highest bidder. The first salt-works are said to have been established by Ancus Marcius at Ostia. The publicani who farmed these works appear to have sold the salt, one of the most necessary of all commodities, at a very high price. The salt-works in Italy and in the provinces were very numerous; in conquered countries however they were sometimes left in the possession of their former owners (persons or towns) who had to pay to Rome only a fixed rent, but most of them were farmed by the publicani.
LacusCurtius • Salinae (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)
Vectigalia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Sacra
Sunday, September 9, 2007
Roman provinces
Roman Republican Provinces
Provinciae Rei Publicae Romanae
7 - Sicilia, provincia propraetorialis -241 (Melita - Melite, -218)
6 - Corsica et Sardinia, provincia propraetorialis -237; -238
1 - Hispania Ulterior, provincia propraetorialis -197
2 - Hispania Citerior, provincia propraetorialis -197
10 - Illyricum, provincia propraetorialis -167
11 - Macedonia et Achaea, provincia propraetorialis -146
9 - Africa proconsularis, provincia proconsularis -148/-146
13 - Asia, provincia proconsularis -133/-129
4 - Gallia Transalpina (Gallia Ulterior), provincia propraetorialis -129/-120
5 - Gallia Cisalpina (Gallia Citerior), provincia propraetorialis -81
3 - Gallia Comata, provincia propraetorialis -51
14 - Bithynia et Ponthus, provincia propraetorialis -74/-64
12 - Cyrenaica et Creta, provincia propraetorialis -74; -71/-69
15 - Cilicia et Cyprus (Cilicia Pedias, -103/-102; Cilicia Trachea, -67/-64; Cyprus, -58/-57), provincia propraetorialis
16 - Syria, provincia propraetorialis -64
8 - Africa Nova, -46
Aegyptus, provincia propraetorialis (Praefectus augustalis) -30
Moesia, provincia propraetorialis -29
Provinciae Rei Publicae Romanae
7 - Sicilia, provincia propraetorialis -241 (Melita - Melite, -218)
6 - Corsica et Sardinia, provincia propraetorialis -237; -238
1 - Hispania Ulterior, provincia propraetorialis -197
2 - Hispania Citerior, provincia propraetorialis -197
10 - Illyricum, provincia propraetorialis -167
11 - Macedonia et Achaea, provincia propraetorialis -146
9 - Africa proconsularis, provincia proconsularis -148/-146
13 - Asia, provincia proconsularis -133/-129
4 - Gallia Transalpina (Gallia Ulterior), provincia propraetorialis -129/-120
5 - Gallia Cisalpina (Gallia Citerior), provincia propraetorialis -81
3 - Gallia Comata, provincia propraetorialis -51
14 - Bithynia et Ponthus, provincia propraetorialis -74/-64
12 - Cyrenaica et Creta, provincia propraetorialis -74; -71/-69
15 - Cilicia et Cyprus (Cilicia Pedias, -103/-102; Cilicia Trachea, -67/-64; Cyprus, -58/-57), provincia propraetorialis
16 - Syria, provincia propraetorialis -64
8 - Africa Nova, -46
Aegyptus, provincia propraetorialis (Praefectus augustalis) -30
Moesia, provincia propraetorialis -29
Roman Imperial Provinces
Roman Empire territories and provinces under Trajan (170 AD) and after 120 AD
- Achaea (ex Macedonia et Achaea), -27
- Ægyptus, -30
- Africa (ex Africa Proconsularis)
- Alpes Cottiae, -8/-7
- Alpes Maritimae, -8/-7
- Alpes Poenninae, -8/-7, Alpes Graiae, -41/-54
- Arabia Petraea, 106
- Armenia Inferior, 116
- Asia
- Assyria, 116
- Bithynia
- Britannia, 43
- Britannia Inferior (ex Britannia), 212/213
- Britannia Superior (ex Britannia), 212/213
- Cappadocia, -18
- Cilicia (ex Cilicia et Cyprus)
- Commagene
- Corduene
- Corsica et Sardinia
- Creta et Cyrene, Cyrenaica
- Cyprus
- Dacia, 106
- Dacia Inferior, Dacia Malvensis, 117 (ex Dacia)
- Dacia Porolissensis, 117 (ex Dacia)
- Dacia Superior, Dacia Apulensis, 117 (ex Dacia)
- Dalmatia, Illyricum Superius, -8 (ex Illyricum)
- Epirus
- Galatia, -25
- Gallia Aquitania (ex Gallia Comata), 17/22
- Gallia Belgica (ex Gallia Comata), 17/22
- Gallia Lugdunensis (ex Gallia Comata), 17/22
- Gallia Narbonensis (ex Gallia Transalpina)
- Germania Inferior, 82/90
- Germania Superior, 82/90
- Hispania Baetica (ex Hispania Ulterior), -27/-14
- Hispania Lusitania (ex Hispania Ulterior), -27/-14
- Hispania Tarraconensis (ex Hispania Citerior)
- Italia
- Iudaea, Syria Palaestina, 44
- Iturea
- Lycaonia
- Lycia et Pamphylia, Lycia , 43
- Macedonia
- Mauretania Caesariensis, 40
- Mauretania Tingitana, 40
- Moesia, -29
- Moesia Inferior (ex Moesia), 85
- Moesia Superior (ex Moesia), 85
- Noricum, 37/54
- Numidia, 198/199
- Osroene
- Pamphylia
- Pannonia, Illyricum Inferius, -8 (ex Illyricum)
- Pannonia Inferior, 103 (ex Pannonia)
- Pannonia Superior, 103 (ex Pannonia)
- Pamphylia
- Pisidia
- Pontus
- Raetia, -8/-7
- Sicilia
- Sophene
- Syria
- Syria Coele, 193/194 (ex Syria)
- Syria Phoenice, 193/194 (ex Syria)
- Taurica
- Thracia, 44
Gallia Lugdunensis Armorica
Gallia Aquitania Prima
Gallia Aquitania Secunda
Gallia Aquitania Tertia
Gallia Aquitania Novempopulana
References:
Roman province (Wikipedia)
Index provinciarum Rei Publicae Romanae (Vicipaedia)
Index provinciarum Romanarum Imperii (Vicipaedia)
Other references:
Tabula successionis provinciarum Romanarum (Vicipaedia)
Roman Provinces (UNRV History)
List of Greek place names (Wikipedia)
List of Roman place names in Britain (Wikipedia)
List of British places with Latin names (Wikipedia)
List of Latin place names in Continental Europe
Latin names of regions (Wikipedia)
Friday, September 7, 2007
Italia Regio
Italia under the Republic and the Augustan Empire
During the Republic, Italia (which extended at the time from Rubicon to Calabria – later Italia was extended to include the whole Italian peninsula, as well as the Istrian town of Pula) was not a province, but rather the territory of the city of Rome.
With the end of the Social War (91-88 BC), Rome allowed the Italian allies to enter with full rights in the Roman society, giving the Roman citizenship to all the Italic peoples. Finally, Julius Caesar gave Roman citizenship to the people of the Gallia Transpadana— that part of Cisalpine Gaul that lay "beyond the Po" –, thus extending Italia up to the Alps.
At the beginning of the Empire, Italia was a collection of territories with different statuses. Some cities, called municipii, had some independence from Rome, while others, the coloniae, were founded by the Romans themselves. Around 7 BC, Augustus Caesar divided Italia into 11 regions, according to Pliny the Elder (Naturalis Historia, iii 46):
- Regio I Latium et Campania
- Regio II Apulia et Calabria
- Regio III Lucania et Bruttii
- Regio IV Samnium
- Regio V Picenum
- Regio VI Umbria et Ager Gallicus
- Regio VII Etruria
- Regio VIII Aemilia
- Regio IX Liguria
- Regio X Venetia et Histria
- Regio XI Transpadana
Regio I: Latium et Campania
Regio II: Apulia et Calabria
Regio III: Lucania et Bruttii
Regio IV: Samnium
Regio V: Picenum
Regio VI: Umbria et Ager Gallicus
Regio VII: Etruria
Regio VIII: Aemilia
Regio IX: Liguria
Regio X: Venetia et Histria
Regio XI: Gallia Transpadana
References:
More references:
Thursday, September 6, 2007
Italia
History of Italy during Roman times
Campaign history of the Roman military
1st Samnite War (343-341 BC)
Latin War (340-338 BC)
2nd Samnite War (326-304 BC)
3rd Samnite War (298-290 BC)
Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC)
great Gaulish war in 225 BCE
1st Servile War (135–132 BC)
2nd Servile War (104– 100 BC)
Social War (91–88 BC)
Sulla's 1st civil war (88-87 BC)
Sulla's 2nd civil war (88-87 BC)
3rd Servile War (Gladiator War, The War of Spartacus) (73-71 BC)
Catiline Conspiracy (64-62 BC)
First Triumvirate (60-53 BC)
Caesar's civil war (49-45 BC)
Liberators' civil war (42 BC)
Sicilian revolt (44–36 BC)
Fulvia's civil war (41–40 BC)
Second Triumvirate (43–33 BC)
Final War of the Roman Republic (Antony's civil war, War between Antony and Octavian) (32–30 BC)
Empire (27 BC - ...)
http://www.twcenter.net/forums/showthread.php?t=47877
Magna Graecia
SPQR (Senatus PopolusQue Romanus)
Campaign history of the Roman military
1st Samnite War (343-341 BC)
Latin War (340-338 BC)
2nd Samnite War (326-304 BC)
3rd Samnite War (298-290 BC)
Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC)
great Gaulish war in 225 BCE
1st Servile War (135–132 BC)
2nd Servile War (104– 100 BC)
Social War (91–88 BC)
Sulla's 1st civil war (88-87 BC)
Sulla's 2nd civil war (88-87 BC)
3rd Servile War (Gladiator War, The War of Spartacus) (73-71 BC)
Catiline Conspiracy (64-62 BC)
First Triumvirate (60-53 BC)
Caesar's civil war (49-45 BC)
Liberators' civil war (42 BC)
Sicilian revolt (44–36 BC)
Fulvia's civil war (41–40 BC)
Second Triumvirate (43–33 BC)
Final War of the Roman Republic (Antony's civil war, War between Antony and Octavian) (32–30 BC)
Empire (27 BC - ...)
http://www.twcenter.net/forums/showthread.php?t=47877
Magna Graecia
SPQR (Senatus PopolusQue Romanus)
- Latium (Italia Regio I: Latium et Campania) - Roma - Latini - 338 BC: ager publicus ? - roman/italic/etruscan culture
- Campania felix (Italia Regio I: Latium et Campania) - Capua - Osci/Campani?, Latini?, Samnites? - roman/italic/etruscan culture
- Apulia (Italia Regio II: Apulia et Calabria) - Luceria, Beneventum, Barium - Apuli (Peucetii) - 275 ? - magna-greek culture
- Calabria (Italia Regio II: Apulia et Calabria) - Tarentum, Brundisium - Calabri (Messapii), Italiotes/Graeci - magna-greek culture
- Lucania (Italia Regio III: Lucania et Bruttii) - Paestum, Potentia, Sybaris? - Lucani - greek culture - magna-greek culture
- Bruttium (Italia Regio III: Lucania et Bruttii) - Rhegium, Croton - Bruttii - magna-greek culture
- Samnium (Italia Regio IV: Samnium) - Corfinium, Bovianum - Samnites (Paeligni, Marrucini, Hirpini, Frentani), Marsi - 308-302 BC - culture ?
- Sabinium et Picenum (Italia Regio V: Picenum) - Ancona - Sabini (Vestini), Picentes (Praetutii) - 302-286 BC - culture ?
- Umbria (Italia Regio VI: Umbria et Ager Gallicus) - Ariminum, Sena Gallica - Umbri, Galii Senones - 295-260 BC - roman/italic/etruscan culture
- Etruria (Italia Regio VII: Etruria) - Arretium, Tarquinii - Etrusci, Tusci - etruscan culture
- Gallia Cisalpina Aemilia (Italia Regio VIII: Aemilia) - Bononia - Galli Boii - 189 BC - gallic culture
- Gallia Cisalpina Liguria (Italia Regio IX: Liguria) - Genua/Jenuensis? - Ligures - gallic culture
- Gallia Cisalpina Venetia (Italia Regio X: Venetia et Histria) - Patavium - Veneti - gallic culture
- Gallia Cisalpina Histria (Italia Regio X: Venetia et Histria) - Aquileia - Histri - 181 BC ? - gallic culture
- Gallia Cisalpina Insubria (Italia Regio XI: Transpadana) - Mediolanum - Galli Insubres, Galli Cenomanii - 225-221 BC, 218-217 BC, 200-194 BC - gallic culture
Sicilia Trinacria? - Lilybaeum, Segesta - Elymi, Punici? - carthaginian culture
Sicilia Sicania - Agrigentum, Messana - Sicani - greek culture
Sicilia - Syracusae - Siculi - greek culture
Malta - carthaginian culture
Corsica - Aleria - Punici? - carthaginian culture
Sardinia - Olbia - Punici? - carthaginian culture
languages in ancient Italy
References:
A SHORT HISTORY OF ABRUZZO - Abruzzo Heritage - Year IV, No. 19
InStoria: Storia Antica - Italia Antiqua
Wednesday, September 5, 2007
Paeninsula Italica factions: Italiotae
ITALIOTAEfaction symbol by Kali; models by Luciano B; skins by Topus Magnus
SETTLEMENTS
Tarentum (Ager Tarentinus)
Rhegium (Ager Rheginus)
Locri Epizephyrii (Locris)
Croton (Ager Crotoniensis)
Thurii (Thurinum)
Heraclea (Ager Heracleensis)
UNITS
Paeninsula Italica factions: Syracusae
SYRACUSAEfaction symbol by Kali; models by Luciano B; skins by Topus Magnus
SETTLEMENTS
Syracusae (Ager Syracusanus)
Messana (Ager Fretensis)
Catana (Ager Aetneus)
Leontini (Ager Leontinus)
Camarina (Ager Camarinensis)
Tyndaris (Ager Tyndaritanus)
UNITS
Paeninsula Italica factions: Poeni
POENIfaction symbol by Kali; models & skins by Luciano B
SETTLEMENTS
Lilybaeum (Ager Lilybaetanus et Ericinus)
Segesta Elymorum (Ager Segestanus)
Selinus (Ager Selinusius)
Panormus (Ager Panormitanus et Soluntinus)
Entella (Ager Entellinus)
Thermae (Ager Himeraeus)
Aleria (Corsica)
Olbia (Sardinia)
UNITS
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